Safety terms, explained

Also: AML, anti-money-laundering

Anti-money laundering (AML) rules require firms to check who their customers are, watch transactions and report suspicious activity to the authorities. Regulators fine firms that fail these duties. In 2024, for example, FinCEN fined TD Bank a record $1.3 billion. On SafetyScorer, AML failures count in the conduct record of banks and the legal record of crypto exchanges. A large or repeated AML case lowers that factor, because it shows weak controls, even when customer money was never at risk.

Related:

Financial intelligence unit, BitLicense, MiCA

Source:

History of Anti-Money Laundering Laws (opens in a new tab)

New York has required a BitLicense since 2015 for most crypto businesses that serve its residents. The New York State Department of Financial Services (NYDFS) grants it and supervises holders on capital, custody, cybersecurity and anti-money laundering. Few exchanges hold one, and NYDFS has fined several of them. On SafetyScorer, a BitLicense or a New York trust charter counts as a licence in a strict jurisdiction, which raises the licensing factor for crypto exchanges.

Related:

MiCA, Anti-money laundering, CASP

Source:

Virtual Currency Businesses (opens in a new tab)

Also: blind-signing

With blind signing, the wallet asks you to approve data it cannot decode for you, often a long hexadecimal string. You cannot see the recipient, the amount or the permissions you grant. Attackers rely on this to slip in a transfer or an unlimited token approval. The opposite is clear signing, where the screen shows readable details. On SafetyScorer, a wallet that blind-signs by default and gives no warnings scores below 50 on signing and scam protection.

Related:

Drainer, Hardware wallet, Multisig

Source:

EIP-712: Typed structured data hashing and signing (opens in a new tab)

Also: boxed warnings, black box warning, black-box warning

The FDA adds a boxed warning when a medicine carries a risk of serious or fatal harm that prescribers must weigh before using it. Examples include the warning on benzodiazepines about misuse, dependence and withdrawal, and the 2010 warning on clopidogrel for people whose CYP2C19 gene works poorly. On SafetyScorer, a boxed warning lowers the regulatory warnings factor, usually below 50. If the harm is frequent, it also lowers serious side effects.

Related:

Contraindication, Drug dependence, CYP450 enzymes

Source:

Warnings and Precautions, Contraindications, and Boxed Warning Sections of Labeling for Human Prescription Drug and Biological Products (opens in a new tab)

Also: CASPs, crypto-asset service provider, crypto-asset service providers, crypto asset service provider

Under MiCA, a crypto firm needs CASP authorisation from one national regulator in the EU. It can then serve customers across the EU and EEA. CASPs must hold capital, keep client assets separate and follow conduct and complaint rules. ESMA publishes a register of authorised firms. On SafetyScorer, a CASP licence counts toward the licensing factor for crypto exchanges. An exchange that stopped serving EU customers because it had no licence scores lower.

Related:

MiCA, BitLicense, Anti-money laundering

Source:

Markets in Crypto-Assets Regulation (MiCA): interim register of crypto-asset service providers (opens in a new tab)

Also: CET1, Common Equity Tier 1

Common Equity Tier 1 (CET1) is the capital that absorbs losses first. Basel rules set a minimum of 4.5% of risk-weighted assets plus a 2.5% buffer, and regulators add more for large or risky banks. What matters is the gap above a bank's own requirement. Barclays, for example, reported 14.3%, about two points above its requirement. CET1 drives the capital strength factor, which carries 25% of a bank's score.

Related:

MDA threshold, Leverage ratio, G-SIB

Source:

Basel Framework CAP10: Definition of eligible capital (opens in a new tab)

Also: cold wallet, cold wallets

A cold wallet keeps private keys offline, for example on a hardware device or in an air-gapped system. Exchanges keep most customer coins in cold storage and only a small float online. Cold storage is not immune: in February 2025 attackers took about $1.5 billion from a Bybit cold wallet by tricking its signers. On SafetyScorer, a high cold-storage share raises the custody and protection factor for exchanges.

Related:

Hot wallet, Hardware wallet, Proof of reserves

Source:

Crypto Asset Custody Basics for Retail Investors – Investor Bulletin (opens in a new tab)

Every SafetyScorer score has a confidence label. High means the data is recent, official and plentiful. Medium means some figures are estimates or a few years old. Low means the record is thin, such as a new aircraft type or a country that publishes little crime data. For aircraft, confidence is high from 20 million flights, medium from 3 million and low below that. Confidence does not change the score itself.

Related:

Safety score, Grade, Empirical Bayes

Source:

How We Score Safety (opens in a new tab)

Also: contraindications, contraindicated

A medicine's label lists its contraindications: conditions, other drugs or groups of people for whom it should not be used. A known allergy to the drug is a common one. Some labels also name specific medicines that must not be combined with it. On SafetyScorer, contraindications feed into the interactions and serious side effects factors. A long list of combinations that are not allowed lowers the interactions score. The right choice for one person depends on their health, so this is a question for a doctor or pharmacist.

Related:

Boxed warning, CYP450 enzymes, Serotonin syndrome

Source:

Warnings and Precautions, Contraindications, and Boxed Warning Sections of Labeling for Human Prescription Drug and Biological Products (opens in a new tab)

Also: controlled substances, controlled drug, controlled drugs, Schedule II, Schedule III, Schedule IV, Schedule V

In the US, the Controlled Substances Act sorts drugs into Schedules I to V. Schedule I drugs have no accepted medical use. Schedule II drugs, such as oxycodone, have a high potential for misuse, and Schedule V drugs have the lowest. The UK uses Classes A to C and Schedules 1 to 5. Tramadol, for example, became Schedule IV in the US in 2014. On SafetyScorer, the schedule is a key input to the dependence and misuse factor.

Related:

Drug dependence, Prescription-only medicine, Over-the-counter

Source:

Controlled Substance Schedules (opens in a new tab)

Also: CYP450, cytochrome P450, CYP3A4, CYP3A, CYP2D6, CYP2C19, CYP2C9, CYP2C8, CYP1A2, CYP2E1

Cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes, mostly in the liver, process a large share of medicines. CYP3A4 and CYP2D6 are the most common. A drug or supplement that blocks one of them can raise the level of another medicine. One that speeds it up can make a medicine work less well. For example, codeine needs CYP2D6 to become morphine. On SafetyScorer, strong CYP effects are a main reason for a lower interactions score for medicines and supplements.

Related:

Contraindication, Serotonin syndrome, QT prolongation

Source:

For Healthcare Professionals: FDA's Examples of Drugs that Interact with CYP Enzymes and Transporter Systems (opens in a new tab)

Also: deposit guarantee, deposit guarantee scheme, deposit protection, FDIC, FDIC-insured, FSCS, FSCS-protected

If a bank fails, a deposit insurance scheme repays eligible deposits up to a limit. The FDIC covers $250,000 per depositor, per bank, per ownership category. The UK's FSCS covers £120,000, and EU schemes cover €100,000. Money above the limit, investments and e-money held outside a bank are usually not covered. On SafetyScorer, deposit protection carries 20% of a bank's score. A strong scheme together with G-SIB status earns 90 or more.

Related:

E-money, Safeguarding, G-SIB

Source:

Understanding Deposit Insurance (opens in a new tab)

Also: drainers, wallet drainer, crypto drainer

A drainer usually sits behind a fake airdrop, mint or support page. When you connect your wallet, it asks you to sign something that looks routine. The signature actually grants a token approval or makes a transfer to the attacker. Criminal groups rent drainer kits to each other. On SafetyScorer, wallets that simulate transactions, warn about known malicious sites and show approvals in readable form score higher on signing and scam protection.

Related:

Blind signing, Seed phrase, Self-custody

Source:

Joint Advisory on Protecting Yourself From Crypto Drainers (opens in a new tab)

Also: physical dependence, withdrawal syndrome

Physical dependence develops when the body adapts to repeated use of a drug. Stopping it suddenly or cutting the dose fast can cause withdrawal, which for some drugs, such as benzodiazepines, can include seizures. Addiction is different: it means compulsive use despite harm. A person can be dependent without being addicted. On SafetyScorer, dependence and misuse is a medication factor worth 15%. Alprazolam scores 15 on it; acetaminophen scores 97.

Related:

Controlled substance, Boxed warning, Overdose margin

Source:

FDA requiring Boxed Warning updated to improve safe use of benzodiazepine drug class (opens in a new tab)

Also: DILI, hepatotoxicity, liver injury

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) ranges from abnormal blood tests to liver failure. Some cases depend on the dose: acetaminophen overdose is a leading cause of acute liver failure in the US. Others are rare reactions that cannot be predicted, as with amoxicillin-clavulanate or some herbal extracts. On SafetyScorer, credible liver injury reports lower serious side effects for medicines and organ toxicity for supplements. We check the LiverTox database for this.

Related:

LiverTox, Overdose margin, Third-party testing

Source:

LiverTox: Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury (opens in a new tab)

Also: electronic money, e-money institution, e-money institutions

Many apps and fintech accounts hold your balance as electronic money. The firm that issues it is an e-money institution, not a bank. It cannot lend your money out, and it must safeguard it. E-money is not covered by schemes such as the FSCS. If the firm fails, you are repaid from the safeguarded pool, which can take time. On SafetyScorer, e-money accounts score lower on deposit protection than insured bank deposits.

Related:

Safeguarding, Deposit insurance

Source:

Payment Services Regulations 2017 and Electronic Money Regulations 2011 (opens in a new tab)

Also: shrinkage

An aircraft type with 2 million flights and no fatal accident has not shown that it is safer than one with 200 million flights. So we blend each type's own record with the average of its technology generation. At 3 million flights, the type's own record and the generation average weigh the same. With more flights, the type's own record counts for more. For example, the 737 MAX has two fatal accidents in about 10.5 million flights and scores 83.

Related:

Full-loss equivalent, Confidence, Safety score

Source:

How We Score Aircraft Safety (opens in a new tab)

Also: end-to-end encrypted, E2EE

With end-to-end encryption, messages are locked on your device and unlocked only on the recipient's. The provider passes them on but holds no key to read them. That protects against breaches, rogue staff and broad data requests. It does not hide metadata such as who you talk to and when. On SafetyScorer, end-to-end encryption on by default is needed for 90 or more on the apps security factor, which carries 30% of the score.

Related:

Two-factor authentication, Passkey, GDPR

Source:

End-to-end encryption and child safety (opens in a new tab)

Also: Air Safety List

The European Commission updates the EU Air Safety List several times a year. Annex A lists airlines banned outright, including all carriers certified in some countries whose regulators fall short. Annex B lists airlines allowed to fly only with certain aircraft or under conditions. Airlines can be removed once they and their regulator fix the problems. On SafetyScorer, an airline on the list scores below 50 on regulatory oversight, a factor worth 20%.

Related:

FAA IASA, ICAO USOAP, IOSA

Source:

EU Air Safety List (opens in a new tab)

Also: IASA, International Aviation Safety Assessment, Category 1, Category 2

Under the International Aviation Safety Assessment (IASA), the FAA rates the regulator of each country whose airlines fly to the US, not the airlines themselves. Category 1 means the regulator meets ICAO standards. Category 2 means it does not, and its airlines cannot start new US service or new codeshares with US airlines. Thailand, for example, was in Category 2 from December 2015 to April 2025. On SafetyScorer, the IASA category feeds the regulatory oversight factor for airlines.

Related:

ICAO USOAP, EU Air Safety List, IOSA

Source:

International Aviation Safety Assessment (IASA) Program (opens in a new tab)

Also: factor score, factor scores

Each category has a short list of factors with fixed weights that add up to 100%. A country, for example, is scored on violent crime (25%), conflict and terrorism (20%), road safety (20%), health risks (15%), natural hazards (10%) and petty crime (10%). Each factor is scored from 0 to 100 against a rubric with numeric thresholds, such as homicides per 100,000 people. The overall score is the weighted average of the factor scores.

Related:

Safety score, Grade, Confidence

Source:

How We Score Safety (opens in a new tab)

Also: FCDO, Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office

The UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) publishes advice for almost every country and territory. It covers safety, terrorism, local laws and health. Its strongest step is to advise against all travel, or all but essential travel, to a whole country or to named areas. Such advice can also affect travel insurance. On SafetyScorer, FCDO warnings feed the conflict and terrorism factor for countries and the crime factors for cities.

Related:

US travel advisory, Global Peace Index, Homicide rate

Source:

Foreign travel advice (opens in a new tab)

Also: FIU, FIU registration

Every country that follows FATF standards has a financial intelligence unit (FIU). It collects suspicious transaction reports and passes leads to police and prosecutors. In some countries, such as South Korea, crypto exchanges must register with the FIU, and it can fine them. In March 2026 Korea's FIU fined Bithumb 36.9 billion won. On SafetyScorer, FIU registration counts toward licensing, and FIU penalties lower the legal record factor for exchanges.

Related:

Anti-money laundering, CASP

Source:

Financial Intelligence Units (opens in a new tab)

Also: fly by wire

In a fly-by-wire aircraft, electronic signals replace most cables and pulleys. On Airbus types and some newer Boeing and Embraer jets, the computers also apply envelope protection, which keeps the aircraft within safe speeds and angles. Airbus brought digital fly-by-wire to airliners with the A320 in 1988. In our data, fly-by-wire jets have about 0.04 full-loss equivalents per million flights, against 0.17 for the previous generation. Airlines with mostly fly-by-wire fleets score higher on the fleet factor.

Related:

Full-loss equivalent, Empirical Bayes, Hull loss

Source:

Fly-by-wire (opens in a new tab)

Also: full-loss equivalents, FLE

MIT statistician Arnold Barnett developed the full-loss equivalent (FLE) to compare accidents of different severity. Each fatal accident adds the share of people on board who died. Air France 447 adds 1.0. Asiana 214 at San Francisco, with 3 deaths among 307 people, adds 0.01. Total FLE divided by flights gives the chance that a random passenger on a random flight is killed. This rate drives every aircraft score on SafetyScorer.

Related:

Empirical Bayes, Hull loss, Micromort

Source:

How We Score Aircraft Safety (opens in a new tab)

Also: G-SIBs, global systemically important bank, global systemically important banks

The Financial Stability Board updates its list of G-SIBs every November, based on size, cross-border activity, complexity and how connected a bank is to other banks. G-SIBs must hold an extra capital buffer of 1% to 3.5% and plan for an orderly failure. Governments also have strong reasons to keep them from collapsing. On SafetyScorer, G-SIB status supports the deposit protection factor. A strong deposit scheme plus G-SIB status scores 90 or more.

Related:

CET1 ratio, Deposit insurance, Leverage ratio

Source:

Global systemically important financial institutions (G-SIFIs) (opens in a new tab)

Also: General Data Protection Regulation, UK GDPR

The GDPR has applied since May 2018 to anyone handling the personal data of people in the EU. It requires a legal basis for processing and gives users rights to access and delete their data. Fines can reach €20 million or 4% of worldwide annual turnover, whichever is higher. The Dutch regulator fined Uber €290 million in 2024 over data transfers to the US. On SafetyScorer, GDPR fines lower the regulatory record factor for apps.

Related:

End-to-end encryption, Two-factor authentication

Source:

Data protection in the EU (opens in a new tab)

Also: GPI

The Institute for Economics and Peace publishes the Global Peace Index (GPI) each June. It combines measures such as deaths from conflict, terrorism, violent crime, political instability and military spending. A low rank means less peace. Colombia, for example, ranked 141st in 2026. On SafetyScorer, the GPI is one input to the conflict and terrorism factor for countries, together with the Global Terrorism Index and government travel advisories.

Related:

Homicide rate, US travel advisory, FCDO travel advice

Source:

Global Peace Index Map (opens in a new tab)

Every score maps to a grade, and the bands are the same in every category. A (85 to 100) means the risk is very low and well understood. B (70 to 84) means some known risks, mostly under control. C (55 to 69) means real risks that need planning. D (40 to 54) means serious risks for many people. F (0 to 39) means high risk or a record of serious harm. So an A airline and an A city carry a similar meaning.

Related:

Safety score, Confidence

Source:

How We Score Safety (opens in a new tab)

Also: hardware wallets

A hardware wallet creates and keeps private keys on the device, often in a secure chip, and signs transactions there. Malware on your computer or phone cannot copy the keys. It can still trick you into approving a harmful transaction, so a clear screen that shows what you sign matters. On SafetyScorer, a wallet whose keys never leave a dedicated device and that uses a standard exportable seed scores 90 or more on key security and recovery.

Related:

Cold storage, Seed phrase, Blind signing

Source:

Crypto Asset Custody Basics for Retail Investors – Investor Bulletin (opens in a new tab)

Also: homicide rates, homicides per 100,000, intentional homicide

Homicide is counted more reliably than other crimes, so UNODC uses the intentional homicide rate per 100,000 people to compare countries. Singapore recorded 0.07 in 2023. On SafetyScorer, it anchors the violent crime factor, which carries 25% of the score for countries and cities. Under 1 per 100,000 scores 95 or more. A country rate of 3 to 8 scores 60 to 79, and over 20 scores below 40. Rates can vary a lot between parts of a city.

Related:

Global Peace Index, WHO road-death estimate, US travel advisory

Source:

UNODC Data Portal: Intentional homicide victims (opens in a new tab)

Also: hot wallets, hot-wallet

A hot wallet keeps its keys on a device or server that is online. Phone and browser wallets are hot wallets, and exchanges use them to process withdrawals quickly. Most large exchange hacks have drained hot wallets, as at Upbit. Exchanges therefore keep only a small share of customer coins in them. On SafetyScorer, a large hot-wallet share or a hot-wallet loss that was not repaid lowers the custody and security history factors.

Related:

Cold storage, Self-custody, Proof of reserves

Source:

Crypto Asset Custody Basics for Retail Investors – Investor Bulletin (opens in a new tab)

Also: hull losses, written off, write-off, write-offs

An aircraft is a hull loss, or written off, when it is destroyed, missing or not worth repairing. Many hull losses have no deaths. When Air France 358 overran the runway at Toronto in 2005, the A340 burned out but all 309 people on board survived. On SafetyScorer, hull losses without deaths count in an airline's accident record, but much less than fatal accidents. Aircraft scores use fatal accidents only.

Related:

Full-loss equivalent, Runway excursion, Tail strike

Source:

Hull Loss (opens in a new tab)

Also: USOAP, Universal Safety Oversight Audit Programme, effective implementation

Under the Universal Safety Oversight Audit Programme (USOAP), ICAO checks each country's aviation regulator in areas such as laws, licensing, operations, airworthiness and accident investigation. The result is an effective implementation (EI) score from 0% to 100%. Singapore's regulator scored 99.7% in its 2022 audit. A low EI means weak oversight of every airline the country certifies. On SafetyScorer, USOAP is a main input to the regulatory oversight factor for airlines.

Related:

FAA IASA, EU Air Safety List, IOSA

Source:

Universal Safety Oversight Audit Programme (USOAP) (opens in a new tab)

Also: IATA Operational Safety Audit, IOSA registration, IOSA-registered

IOSA checks an airline against a common set of standards, from flight operations and maintenance to cabin safety and security. Accredited audit firms carry it out, and airlines must be re-audited every two years to stay on the IOSA registry. IATA membership requires it, but many airlines outside IATA register too. On SafetyScorer, IOSA registration is needed for 90 or more on regulatory oversight. An airline without it scores lower, although it is not unsafe by itself.

Related:

FAA IASA, ICAO USOAP, EU Air Safety List

Source:

IATA Operational Safety Audit (IOSA) (opens in a new tab)

Also: leverage ratios

Risk-weighted ratios such as CET1 depend on the bank's own risk models. The leverage ratio does not: it divides Tier 1 capital by total exposures, including off-balance-sheet items. The Basel minimum is 3%, and the UK sets 3.25% for large banks. A bank with a strong CET1 ratio but a thin leverage ratio may hold many assets with low risk weights. On SafetyScorer, the leverage ratio supports the capital strength factor.

Related:

CET1 ratio, MDA threshold, G-SIB

Source:

Basel Framework LEV10: Definitions and application (opens in a new tab)

Also: LCR

The liquidity coverage ratio (LCR) tests whether a bank could survive a month of heavy withdrawals by selling high-quality assets such as cash and government bonds. Basel rules require at least 100%. Most large European banks report 130% to 160%. On SafetyScorer, the LCR is the main input to the liquidity and funding factor, worth 15% of a bank's score. An LCR well above 100% and stable retail deposits score 90 or more.

Related:

Net stable funding ratio, CET1 ratio, Deposit insurance

Source:

Basel Framework LCR10: Definitions and application (opens in a new tab)

LiverTox is run by the US National Institutes of Health. For each product it summarises published case reports and gives a likelihood category, from A (a well-known cause of liver injury) to E (unlikely). It covers prescription drugs and also many herbal and dietary supplements, such as green tea extract and turmeric. On SafetyScorer, LiverTox is our main source for the organ toxicity factor for supplements. It also informs serious side effects for medicines.

Related:

Drug-induced liver injury, Third-party testing

Source:

LiverTox: Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury (opens in a new tab)

Also: airprox, airproxes

Air traffic control keeps aircraft a minimum distance apart, both sideways and vertically. A loss of separation means they came closer than that minimum, whether or not a collision was close. In the UK, pilots or controllers can report an airprox, and the UK Airprox Board assesses the risk. On SafetyScorer, losses of separation count in an airline's serious incidents factor (15%). A single well-handled event matters less than a pattern.

Related:

Runway excursion, Tail strike, Hull loss

Source:

UK Airprox Board (opens in a new tab)

Also: MDA trigger, maximum distributable amount

Banks must hold capital buffers on top of their minimum requirements. If the CET1 ratio falls into these buffers, the maximum distributable amount (MDA) rules cap what the bank can pay out. The MDA threshold is the line where that starts. ABN AMRO, for example, reported a CET1 ratio of 15.9% against an MDA trigger of 11.4% in June 2026. On SafetyScorer, a wide gap above the threshold raises the capital strength factor.

Related:

CET1 ratio, Leverage ratio, G-SIB

Source:

Basel Framework RBC30: Buffers above the regulatory minimum (opens in a new tab)

Also: Merkle-tree, Merkle trees

In a Merkle tree, each record is hashed, and the hashes are combined in pairs until one root hash is left. Crypto exchanges use it for proof of reserves. They put every customer balance into a tree and publish the root. Each customer can then check that their own balance is included. The method proves what was counted. It does not prove that the exchange has no other debts, so we look for audited liabilities too.

Related:

Proof of reserves, Cold storage

Source:

Merkle tree – Glossary (opens in a new tab)

Also: Markets in Crypto-Assets, Markets in Crypto-Assets Regulation

MiCA is Regulation (EU) 2023/1114. Its rules for crypto-asset service providers have applied since 30 December 2024, and national transition periods ended by 1 July 2026. Licensed firms must meet rules on capital, governance, custody and complaint handling, and they can serve the whole EU. Binance, for example, stopped serving most EU customers after failing to get a licence. On SafetyScorer, a MiCA licence counts as a strict-jurisdiction licence for crypto exchanges.

Related:

CASP, BitLicense, Anti-money laundering

Source:

Markets in Crypto-Assets Regulation (MiCA) (opens in a new tab)

Also: micromorts

Ronald Howard proposed the micromort, and David Spiegelhalter made it widely known. One micromort is a one-in-a-million chance of dying. A US skydive carries about 4 micromorts per jump, and a recreational scuba dive about 2 to 5. A car occupant in Britain faces about 0.17 per 100 miles. On SafetyScorer, micromorts per session, trip or hour drive the fatality risk factor, worth 50% of an activity's score. Under 0.1 scores 95 or more; over 100 scores below 40.

Related:

Full-loss equivalent, Safety score

Source:

Micromorts (opens in a new tab)

Also: MPC wallets, MPC, multi-party computation

Multi-party computation (MPC) lets several parties sign a transaction together without ever putting the full key in one place. A typical setup keeps one share on your phone and one with the wallet company, sometimes with a third as a backup. That removes the need for a written seed phrase, but you may depend on the company to sign. On SafetyScorer, an MPC wallet where the vendor holds a share scores 50 to 69 on key security and recovery if a documented way to export your keys exists.

Related:

Multisig, Seed phrase, Self-custody

Source:

Multi-Party Threshold Cryptography (opens in a new tab)

Also: multi-sig, multisignature, multi-signature

A multisig wallet sets a rule such as 2-of-3: three keys exist, and any two must sign. Losing one key does not lose the funds, and stealing one is not enough to take them. Exchanges and companies use multisig for large holdings. It does not help if every signer approves the same disguised transaction, as happened in the Bybit theft of February 2025. On SafetyScorer, optional multisig support helps a wallet reach 90 or more on key security and recovery.

Related:

MPC wallet, Blind signing, Cold storage

Source:

BIP 11: M-of-N Standard Transactions (opens in a new tab)

Also: NSFR

The net stable funding ratio (NSFR) checks that a bank does not fund long-term loans with money that can leave quickly. It compares available stable funding with the stable funding its assets and activities require over a year. Basel rules require at least 100%. ING, for example, reported 128% in the second quarter of 2026. On SafetyScorer, the NSFR supports the liquidity and funding factor, together with the liquidity coverage ratio.

Related:

Liquidity coverage ratio, CET1 ratio

Source:

Basel III: the net stable funding ratio (opens in a new tab)

Also: OTC, over the counter

Over-the-counter (OTC) medicines are approved for self-treatment, with a label written for the public. Acetaminophen, ibuprofen and omeprazole are examples. OTC packs often have lower strengths, smaller pack sizes or shorter limits than prescription versions of the same drug. OTC does not mean free of risk. On SafetyScorer, the same factors apply to OTC and prescription medicines.

Related:

Prescription-only medicine, Overdose margin, Controlled substance

Source:

Understanding Over-the-Counter Medicines (opens in a new tab)

Also: therapeutic index, narrow therapeutic index

Overdose margin is a SafetyScorer factor worth 20% of a medication's score. It reflects the gap between a normal dose and a harmful one, called the therapeutic index, and the record of overdose deaths. A very wide margin scores 90 or more. A narrow margin, or a drug that is a leading cause of overdose, scores below 50. Ibuprofen scores 85 here. Acetaminophen scores lower, because overdose is a leading cause of acute liver failure.

Related:

Drug-induced liver injury, Drug dependence, Over-the-counter

Source:

How We Score Medications (opens in a new tab)

Also: passkeys

A passkey is a login credential based on FIDO standards. The private part stays on your device or in your password manager, and the website stores only a public key. Because each passkey works only for the site it was made for, a fake login page cannot use it. That makes passkeys resistant to phishing. On SafetyScorer, passkey support helps apps and banks score well on security. Banks need strong 2FA or passkeys for 90 or more on digital security.

Related:

Two-factor authentication, End-to-end encryption

Source:

FIDO Passkeys: Passwordless Authentication (opens in a new tab)

Also: fine particulate matter, fine particles

PM2.5 comes from traffic, heating, industry, dust and fires. It is measured in micrograms per cubic metre (µg/m³) as an annual average. The WHO guideline is 5 µg/m³, which few big cities meet. On SafetyScorer, annual PM2.5 is a main input to the health and environment factor for cities. Under 10 µg/m³ with excellent emergency care scores 90 or more. Over 35 scores below 50.

Related:

WHO road-death estimate, Homicide rate

Source:

Ambient (outdoor) air pollution (opens in a new tab)

Also: prescription-only, prescription-only medicines

Regulators make a medicine prescription-only when its use needs a diagnosis, monitoring or control of misuse. They can move a medicine between groups. The UK moved codeine linctus to prescription-only in 2024, after deaths involving codeine rose. Australia made all codeine prescription-only in February 2018. On SafetyScorer, such moves count as regulatory restrictions, which can lower the regulatory warnings factor. They often mean regulators saw real-world harm.

Related:

Over-the-counter, Controlled substance, Drug dependence

Source:

Medicines: reclassify your product (opens in a new tab)

Also: proof-of-reserves

In a proof of reserves, an exchange publishes the wallet addresses it controls and a snapshot of customer balances, often in a Merkle tree. A good one includes all liabilities, is checked by an independent firm and is repeated often. A one-off snapshot that leaves out debts says much less. On SafetyScorer, proof of reserves is a factor worth 20% for exchanges. Frequent, verified reports that include liabilities, or audited accounts, score 90 or more.

Related:

Merkle tree, Cold storage, Hot wallet

Source:

How We Score Crypto Exchanges (opens in a new tab)

Also: QT-prolonging, QT interval, prolonged QT

The QT interval is part of the heart's cycle on an electrocardiogram (ECG). Some medicines lengthen it, including certain antibiotics, antidepressants such as citalopram, and anti-nausea drugs. A long QT can trigger torsades de pointes, a rhythm that can be fatal. The risk rises with heart disease, low potassium or several QT-prolonging drugs together. On SafetyScorer, a QT warning lowers serious side effects and interactions.

Related:

CYP450 enzymes, Contraindication, Boxed warning

Source:

ICH E14 Clinical evaluation of QT/QTc interval prolongation and proarrhythmic potential for non-antiarrhythmic drugs (opens in a new tab)

Also: runway excursions, runway overrun, runway overruns, overran the runway

Runway excursions are one of the most common types of airline accident. Typical causes are an unstable approach, landing long or fast, a wet or icy runway, or a problem with brakes or reversers. Most cause no deaths, but some aircraft are written off. On SafetyScorer, runway excursions in the last 10 years count in an airline's serious incidents factor, together with tail strikes and losses of separation. The airport and the weather affect the operating environment factor.

Related:

Hull loss, Tail strike, Loss of separation

Source:

Runway Excursions (opens in a new tab)

Also: safeguarded

Payment and e-money firms do not have deposit insurance. Instead they must safeguard customer funds. They keep the money in a separate account at a bank, invest it in safe assets, or cover it with insurance or a guarantee. If the firm fails, an administrator returns the money from that pool. Payouts can take months and costs may come out first. On SafetyScorer, safeguarding scores below deposit insurance on the deposit protection factor.

Related:

E-money, Deposit insurance

Source:

Safeguarding requirements for payment institutions and electronic (e-money) institutions (opens in a new tab)

Also: safety scores

Every score answers one question: compared with the alternatives, how likely is this to hurt you? The scale runs from 0 to 100 and is the same in every category, so 85 means much the same for an airline as for a city. Most scores are the weighted average of fixed factors, each scored against a written rubric. Aircraft scores are calculated from accident and flight data. A score describes typical risk, not your trip, dose or account.

Related:

Grade, Factor, Confidence

Source:

How We Score Safety (opens in a new tab)

Also: seed phrases, recovery phrase, secret recovery phrase, mnemonic phrase

Most wallets create the private key from a seed phrase that follows the BIP-39 standard. You write the words down and keep them offline. If the device is lost, the words restore the wallet on another one. Because the phrase is the key, real support staff never ask for it. Requests for it are a common sign of theft attempts. On SafetyScorer, a standard seed you can export lets you leave a wallet without the vendor, which raises the key security and recovery score.

Related:

Self-custody, Hardware wallet, Drainer

Source:

BIP 39: Mnemonic code for generating deterministic keys (opens in a new tab)

Also: self-custodial, non-custodial

With self-custody, no exchange can freeze, lend out or lose your coins in a bankruptcy. But you are responsible for the keys. If you lose the seed phrase, or sign a malicious transaction, nobody can reverse it. On SafetyScorer, crypto exchanges are scored on how they hold customer assets. Self-custody wallets are scored on their own code, key handling, audits and defences against drainers and phishing, because the risk moves from the company to your keys and the wallet software.

Related:

Seed phrase, Hardware wallet, Cold storage

Source:

Crypto Asset Custody Basics for Retail Investors – Investor Bulletin (opens in a new tab)

Also: serotonin toxicity

Serotonin syndrome happens when medicines or supplements that raise serotonin are combined or the dose goes up. Examples include SSRI antidepressants, MAOIs, tramadol and St John's wort. Symptoms include agitation, sweating, fast heartbeat, muscle twitching and, in severe cases, very high temperature. It usually starts within hours of a change. On SafetyScorer, a known risk of serotonin syndrome lowers the interactions factor for medicines and supplements.

Related:

Contraindication, CYP450 enzymes, QT prolongation

Source:

Serotonin syndrome (opens in a new tab)

Also: joint rank, tied rank

Aircraft scores rest on rare events, so a gap of less than 1 point does not show that one type is safer than another. We sort types by score and group every type that is less than 1 point below the first type of its group. Types in a group share a rank, shown with an equals sign, such as 1=. The next group's rank counts all types above it, as in sports tables: five types at 1= are followed by 6.

Related:

Safety score, Confidence

Source:

How We Score Aircraft Safety (opens in a new tab)

Also: tail strikes, tailstrike

Tail strikes usually come from rotating too early or too steeply on take-off, or flaring too much on landing. Wrong weight or speed data entered by the crew is a common cause. Long aircraft are more exposed. Most tail strikes cause no injuries, but the rear pressure bulkhead can be damaged. An Aeromexico 767 was written off after a tail strike at Madrid in 2013. On SafetyScorer, tail strikes count in an airline's serious incidents factor.

Related:

Runway excursion, Hull loss, Loss of separation

Source:

Tail Strike (opens in a new tab)

Also: third-party tested, USP Verified, NSF Certified for Sport, Informed Sport

The FDA does not test dietary supplements before they go on sale. Independent programmes fill part of the gap. USP Verified checks identity, strength, purity and manufacturing. NSF Certified for Sport and Informed Sport also screen for substances banned in sport. A seal says nothing about whether the supplement works. On SafetyScorer, wide availability of tested products raises the product quality factor (20%) for supplements.

Related:

LiverTox, Drug-induced liver injury

Source:

Questions and Answers on Dietary Supplements (opens in a new tab)

Also: two-factor, 2FA, two-step verification, multi-factor authentication, MFA

Two-factor authentication (2FA) combines something you know, such as a password, with something you have or are, such as a phone, a security key or a fingerprint. Codes sent by text message are the weakest form, because SIM swaps and phishing can intercept them. Authenticator apps, security keys and passkeys are stronger. On SafetyScorer, 2FA support counts in the security factor for apps, digital security for banks and security for crypto exchanges.

Related:

Passkey, End-to-end encryption

Source:

Multi-factor authentication (MFA) – Glossary (opens in a new tab)

Also: travel advisory, travel advisories, US advisory, State Department advisory

The State Department gives each country one of four levels. Level 1 means exercise normal precautions, Level 2 exercise increased caution, Level 3 reconsider travel and Level 4 do not travel. It can also set higher levels for specific regions. Advisories reflect crime, terrorism, unrest, health and limits on US consular help. On SafetyScorer, they feed the conflict and terrorism factor. A Level 4 for large areas means a score below 40 on that factor.

Related:

FCDO travel advice, Global Peace Index, Homicide rate

Source:

Travel Advisories (opens in a new tab)

Also: WHO estimate, WHO estimates, WHO estimated

Police records in many countries miss some road deaths, for example people who die weeks after a crash. The WHO models each country's true toll to make figures comparable. Its estimates are often higher than national counts. Brazil's, for example, was 16.0 per 100,000 in 2019. On SafetyScorer, the WHO estimate drives the road safety factor for countries (20%). Under 4 per 100,000 scores 90 or more, and over 25 scores below 35.

Related:

Homicide rate, PM2.5, Micromort

Source:

Global Health Observatory: Road traffic deaths (opens in a new tab)